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SmolTulu: Higher Learning Rate to Batch Size Ratios Can Lead to Better Reasoning in SLMs

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Table of Contents

2412.08347
Sultan Alrashed et el.
๐Ÿค— 2024-12-16

โ†— arXiv โ†— Hugging Face โ†— Papers with Code

TL;DR
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Large language models (LLMs) excel, but smaller models are crucial for broader access. Existing post-training techniques, effective on LLMs, remain underexplored on smaller scales, hindering efficient model deployment in resource-limited settings. It also raises a problem on the lack of understanding in scaling these techniques into SLMs, particularly on various optimization strategies. This research tackles efficient post-training for smaller language models. Existing training strategies for large language models (LLMs) might not suit smaller ones.

This paper explores how training dynamics, specifically the learning rate to batch size ratio, impact smaller model performance. By adapting AllenAI’s Tulu 3 pipeline to a 1.7B parameter model, the research demonstrates that optimizing this ratio is crucial, especially for complex reasoning tasks. Higher ratios boosted reasoning, while lower ones benefited pattern recognition. This careful tuning yielded state-of-the-art results for smaller models, demonstrating that efficient model adaptation can bridge the gap between smaller and larger language models.

Key Takeaways
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Why does it matter?
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Smaller language models (SLMs) are crucial for democratizing access to AI but often underperform larger models. This research demonstrates how careful tuning, especially of the learning rate to batch size ratio, can significantly enhance SLM capabilities, opening new avenues for efficient model deployment. The study’s insights into optimization dynamics and task-specific tuning are valuable for researchers exploring efficient deep learning and contribute to the growing field of SLM optimization, pushing the boundaries of what’s possible with smaller, more accessible models.


Visual Insights
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๐Ÿ”ผ ์ด ๊ทธ๋ฆผ์€ SmolLM2-135M ๋ชจ๋ธ์˜ ์ง€๋„ ๋ฏธ์„ธ ์กฐ์ •(Supervised Fine-tuning) ๊ณผ์ •์—์„œ ํ•™์Šต๋ฅ ๊ณผ ๋ฐฐ์น˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ๊ฐ€ ARC ์ ์ˆ˜์— ๋ฏธ์น˜๋Š” ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋“ฑ๊ณ ์„  ๋ถ„์„์œผ๋กœ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ค๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์ƒ‰์ƒ ์Šค์ผ€์ผ์€ ๊ฐ ์ง€ํ‘œ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ ์ˆ˜๋ฅผ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ด๋ฉฐ, ๊ฒ€์€์ƒ‰์ผ์ˆ˜๋ก ์„ฑ๋Šฅ์ด ๋†’๋‹ค๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ์˜๋ฏธํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์ด ๊ทธ๋ฆผ์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ํ•™์Šต๋ฅ ๊ณผ ๋ฐฐ์น˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ ๋น„์œจ์˜ ์ตœ์ ๊ฐ’์ด ์ž‘์—…์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ ๋‹ค๋ฅด๋‹ค๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ์•Œ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.

read the caption(a) Effect of learning rate and batch size on ARC score.
BenchmarkContamination
cais/mmlu1.34%
openai/openai_humaneval0.00%
openai/gsm8k0.08%
ucinlp/drop0.20%
lighteval/MATH0.06%
google/IFEval0.00%
akariasai/PopQA7.21%
tatsu-lab/alpaca_eval1.37%
lukaemon/bbh0.02%
truthfulqa/truthful_qa1.47%
allenai/wildguardmix0.06%
allenai/wildjailbreak0.00%
TIGER-Lab/MMLU-Pro0.93%
Idavidrein/gpqa0.00%
lighteval/agi_eval_en0.00%
bigcode/bigcodebench0.00%
deepmind/math_dataset0.00%

๐Ÿ”ผ ์ด ํ‘œ๋Š” SFT ๋ฐ์ดํ„ฐ์…‹(allenai/tulu-3-sft-mixture)์— ์‚ฌ์šฉ๋œ ๋ฒค์น˜๋งˆํฌ๋“ค์˜ ์˜ค์—ผ๋ฅ ์„ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ค๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์˜ค์—ผ๋ฅ ์ด๋ž€, ํ›ˆ๋ จ ๋ฐ์ดํ„ฐ์…‹์— ํ‰๊ฐ€ ๋ฐ์ดํ„ฐ์…‹์˜ ๋‚ด์šฉ์ด ํฌํ•จ๋˜์–ด ์žˆ๋Š” ๋น„์œจ์„ ์˜๋ฏธํ•˜๋ฉฐ, ์ด๋Š” ๋ชจ๋ธ ํ‰๊ฐ€์˜ ์‹ ๋ขฐ๋„๋ฅผ ๋–จ์–ด๋œจ๋ฆด ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ํ‘œ์—์„œ ๋ณผ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋“ฏ์ด ๋Œ€๋ถ€๋ถ„์˜ ๋ฒค์น˜๋งˆํฌ๋Š” 1.5% ๋ฏธ๋งŒ์˜ ๋‚ฎ์€ ์˜ค์—ผ๋ฅ ์„ ๋ณด์ด๊ณ  ์žˆ์œผ๋ฉฐ, GSM8K, IFEval, AGI Eval๊ณผ ๊ฐ™์€ ์ฃผ์š” ํ‰๊ฐ€ ๋ฒค์น˜๋งˆํฌ๋Š” ์˜ค์—ผ๋ฅ ์ด ๊ฑฐ์˜ 0์— ๊ฐ€๊น์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.

read the captionTable 1: Contamination of benchmarks in the SFT dataset used allenai/tulu-3-sft-mixture

In-depth insights
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LR/BS Ratios in SLMs
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ํ•™์Šต๋ฅ (LR) ๋Œ€ ๋ฐฐ์น˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ(BS) ๋น„์œจ์€ ์†Œ๊ทœ๋ชจ ์–ธ์–ด ๋ชจ๋ธ(SLM)์˜ ์„ฑ๋Šฅ์— ํฐ ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ฏธ์นฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋Š” ์ถ”๋ก ๊ณผ ํŒจํ„ด ์ธ์‹ ์ž‘์—…์—์„œ LR/BS ๋น„์œจ์˜ ํšจ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ๋ถ„์„ํ–ˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์ถ”๋ก  ์ž‘์—…์˜ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ, ๋” ๋†’์€ LR/BS ๋น„์œจ์ด ์„ฑ๋Šฅ ํ–ฅ์ƒ์„ ๊ฐ€์ ธ์˜ค๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์œผ๋กœ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ฌ์œผ๋ฉฐ, ์ด๋Š” ๋” ์žฆ์€ ๋งค๊ฐœ๋ณ€์ˆ˜ ์—…๋ฐ์ดํŠธ์™€ ์ผ์น˜ํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ๋ฐ˜๋Œ€๋กœ ํŒจํ„ด ์ธ์‹ ์ž‘์—…์€ ๋” ๋‚ฎ์€ ๋น„์œจ์—์„œ ์ตœ์ ์˜ ์„ฑ๋Šฅ์„ ๋ณด์˜€์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ์ฐจ์ด๋Š” ๋ชจ๋ธ ์šฉ๋Ÿ‰์˜ ์ œ์•ฝ๊ณผ ์ตœ์ ํ™” ์ „๋žต์˜ ํ•„์š”์„ฑ์„ ๊ฐ•์กฐํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ํฅ๋ฏธ๋กญ๊ฒŒ๋„, ๋” ํฐ ๋ชจ๋ธ์—์„œ๋Š” LR/BS ๋น„์œจ์˜ ์˜ํ–ฅ์ด ์ž‘์—… ์œ ํ˜•์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ ๋œ ๋šœ๋ ทํ•ด์ง€๋Š” ๊ฒฝํ–ฅ์ด ์žˆ์—ˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๊ด€์ฐฐ์€ ๋ชจ๋ธ ์šฉ๋Ÿ‰์ด ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ•จ์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ ์ตœ์ ํ™”์˜ ์œ ์—ฐ์„ฑ์ด ํ–ฅ์ƒ๋จ์„ ์‹œ์‚ฌํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. SLM ๊ต์œก์„ ์œ„ํ•œ ์ตœ์ ์˜ LR/BS ๋น„์œจ์„ ๊ฒฐ์ •ํ•˜๋Š” ๋ฐ ์žˆ์–ด ๋ชจ๋ธ ํฌ๊ธฐ์™€ ์ž‘์—… ์œ ํ˜• ๊ฐ„์˜ ๋ณต์žกํ•œ ์ƒํ˜ธ ์ž‘์šฉ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ถ”๊ฐ€ ์กฐ์‚ฌ๊ฐ€ ํ•„์š”ํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.

SmolTulu Optimization
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SmolTulu ์ตœ์ ํ™”๋Š” ์ž‘์€ ์–ธ์–ด ๋ชจ๋ธ์˜ ํšจ์œจ์ ์ธ ๋ฏธ์„ธ ์กฐ์ •์— ์ค‘์ ์„ ๋‘ก๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์ฃผ์š” ๋ชฉํ‘œ๋Š” ํ•™์Šต๋ฅ ๊ณผ ๋ฐฐ์น˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ ๋น„์œจ์„ ์กฐ์ •ํ•˜์—ฌ ์ถ”๋ก  ๋ฐ ํŒจํ„ด ์ธ์‹ ์ž‘์—… ๋ชจ๋‘์—์„œ ์„ฑ๋Šฅ์„ ํ–ฅ์ƒ์‹œํ‚ค๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅด๋ฉด ๋” ๋†’์€ ๋น„์œจ์€ GSM8K์™€ ๊ฐ™์€ ์ถ”๋ก  ๋ฒค์น˜๋งˆํฌ์— ์œ ์ตํ•œ ๋ฐ˜๋ฉด ๋‚ฎ์€ ๋น„์œจ์€ HellaSwag ๋ฐ IFEval๊ณผ ๊ฐ™์€ ํŒจํ„ด ์ธ์‹์—์„œ ๋” ๋‚˜์€ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ์‚ฐ์ถœํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๋ฐœ๊ฒฌ์€ ๋ชจ๋ธ ํฌ๊ธฐ์™€ ์ž‘์—… ์œ ํ˜•์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ ์ตœ์ ์˜ ๋น„์œจ์ด ๋‹ค๋ฆ„์„ ์‹œ์‚ฌํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. SmolTulu๋Š” ๋˜ํ•œ **Direct Preference Optimization(DPO)**๋ฅผ ํ™œ์šฉํ•˜์—ฌ ๋ณด์ƒ ๋ชจ๋ธ ์—†์ด ์ •์ฑ…์„ ์ง์ ‘ ์ตœ์ ํ™”ํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์ด ๋ฐฉ๋ฒ•์€ ๊ณ„์‚ฐ ํšจ์œจ์„ฑ์„ ํ–ฅ์ƒ์‹œํ‚ค๊ณ  ๋” ์ž‘์€ ๋ชจ๋ธ์— ์ ํ•ฉํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋Š” **๊ฒ€์ฆ ๊ฐ€๋Šฅํ•œ ๋ณด์ƒ์„ ์‚ฌ์šฉํ•œ ๊ฐ•ํ™” ํ•™์Šต(RLVR)**์˜ ์ž ์žฌ๋ ฅ์„ ํƒ๊ตฌํ•˜์ง€๋งŒ ๊ณ„์‚ฐ ์ œ์•ฝ์œผ๋กœ ์ธํ•ด ์ฒ ์ €ํ•œ ํƒ์ƒ‰์ด ์ œํ•œ๋ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์ „๋ฐ˜์ ์œผ๋กœ SmolTulu ์ตœ์ ํ™”๋Š” ์ž‘์€ ์–ธ์–ด ๋ชจ๋ธ์„ ์œ„ํ•œ ํšจ์œจ์ ์ด๊ณ  ํšจ๊ณผ์ ์ธ ํ›ˆ๋ จ ์ „๋žต์„ ํ–ฅ์ƒ์‹œํ‚ค๋Š” ๋ฐ ์ค‘์ ์„ ๋‘ก๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.

Task-Specific Dynamics
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์ž‘์—…๋ณ„ ๋™์  ํŠน์„ฑ์€ ๋‹ค์–‘ํ•œ ์ž‘์—…์—์„œ ๋ชจ๋ธ ์ตœ์ ํ™”์˜ ๋ณต์žก์„ฑ์„ ๊ฐ•์กฐํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์ถ”๋ก ๊ณผ ํŒจํ„ด ์ธ์‹์€ ์„œ๋กœ ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ์ตœ์ ํ™” ์ „๋žต์ด ํ•„์š”ํ•จ์ด ๋ถ„๋ช…ํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์˜ˆ๋ฅผ ๋“ค์–ด GSM8K์™€ ๊ฐ™์€ ์ถ”๋ก  ๋ฒค์น˜๋งˆํฌ๋Š” ๋†’์€ ํ•™์Šต๋ฅ  ๋Œ€ ๋ฐฐ์น˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ ๋น„์œจ์—์„œ ์ด์ ์„ ์–ป๋Š” ๋ฐ˜๋ฉด HellaSwag ๋ฐ IFEval๊ณผ ๊ฐ™์€ ํŒจํ„ด ์ธ์‹ ์ž‘์—…์€ ๋‚ฎ์€ ๋น„์œจ์—์„œ ๋” ๋‚˜์€ ์„ฑ๋Šฅ์„ ๋ณด์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ์ฐจ์ด๋Š” ์ž‘์—… ์œ ํ˜•์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ ๋ชจ๋ธ ์šฉ๋Ÿ‰ ํ• ๋‹น ๋ฐฉ์‹์ด ๋‹ค๋ฆ„์„ ์‹œ์‚ฌํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ํฅ๋ฏธ๋กญ๊ฒŒ๋„ ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๋™์  ํŠน์„ฑ์€ ๋ชจ๋ธ ๊ทœ๋ชจ์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ ๋ณ€ํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์†Œ๊ทœ๋ชจ ๋ชจ๋ธ์˜ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ์ฐจ์ด๋Š” ๋”์šฑ ๋‘๋“œ๋Ÿฌ์ง€์ง€๋งŒ, ๋Œ€๊ทœ๋ชจ ๋ชจ๋ธ์—์„œ๋Š” ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๊ฒฝ๊ณ„๊ฐ€ ๋ชจํ˜ธํ•ด์ง‘๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๊ด€์ฐฐ์€ ์ž‘์—…์˜ ๋ณต์žก์„ฑ, ๋ชจ๋ธ ํฌ๊ธฐ ๋ฐ ์ตœ์ ํ™” ์ „๋žต ๊ฐ„์˜ ๋ณต์žกํ•œ ์ƒํ˜ธ ์ž‘์šฉ์„ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ค๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๋ณต์žก์„ฑ์„ ์™„์ „ํžˆ ์ดํ•ดํ•˜๋ ค๋ฉด ์ถ”๊ฐ€ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๊ฐ€ ํ•„์š”ํ•˜์ง€๋งŒ, ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ์ดˆ๊ธฐ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋Š” ๋” ํšจ์œจ์ ์ด๊ณ  ์ž‘์—…๋ณ„ ๋ชจ๋ธ ์ตœ์ ํ™”๋ฅผ ์œ„ํ•œ ๋งž์ถคํ˜• ์ „๋žต ๊ฐœ๋ฐœ์˜ ์ค‘์š”์„ฑ์„ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ค๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.

Scaling Laws in SFT/DPO
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**SFT(Supervised Fine-tuning)**์™€ **DPO(Direct Preference Optimization)**์—์„œ ์Šค์ผ€์ผ๋ง ๋ฒ•์น™์€ ๋ชจ๋ธ ํฌ๊ธฐ, ๋ฐ์ดํ„ฐ์…‹ ํฌ๊ธฐ, ํ•™์Šต๋ฅ , ๋ฐฐ์น˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ ๋“ฑ ๋‹ค์–‘ํ•œ ์š”์†Œ๊ฐ€ ๋ชจ๋ธ ์„ฑ๋Šฅ์— ๋ฏธ์น˜๋Š” ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜๋Š” ๋ฐ ์ค‘์š”ํ•œ ์—ญํ• ์„ ํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์ผ๋ฐ˜์ ์œผ๋กœ ๋ชจ๋ธ๊ณผ ๋ฐ์ดํ„ฐ์…‹ ํฌ๊ธฐ๊ฐ€ ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ• ์ˆ˜๋ก ์„ฑ๋Šฅ์ด ํ–ฅ์ƒ๋˜๋Š” ๊ฒฝํ–ฅ์ด ์žˆ์ง€๋งŒ, ์ตœ์ ์˜ ํ•™์Šต๋ฅ ๊ณผ ๋ฐฐ์น˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ๋Š” ์ž‘์—… ๋ฐ ๋ชจ๋ธ ์•„ํ‚คํ…์ฒ˜์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ ๋‹ค๋ฆ…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์Šค์ผ€์ผ๋ง ๋ฒ•์น™์„ ์ดํ•ดํ•˜๋ฉด ๊ณ„์‚ฐ ํšจ์œจ์„ฑ์„ ์œ ์ง€ํ•˜๋ฉด์„œ ์ตœ์ƒ์˜ ์„ฑ๋Šฅ์„ ๋‹ฌ์„ฑํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•œ ์ ์ ˆํ•œ ํ•˜์ดํผํŒŒ๋ผ๋ฏธํ„ฐ๋ฅผ ์„ ํƒํ•˜๋Š” ๋ฐ ๋„์›€์ด ๋ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ํŠนํžˆ ์ž‘์€ ๋ชจ๋ธ์˜ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ, ์Šค์ผ€์ผ๋ง ๋ฒ•์น™์„ ์‹ ์ค‘ํ•˜๊ฒŒ ์กฐ์ •ํ•˜์—ฌ ๋Œ€๊ทœ๋ชจ ๋ชจ๋ธ๊ณผ์˜ ์„ฑ๋Šฅ ๊ฒฉ์ฐจ๋ฅผ ์ค„์ด๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์ด ์ค‘์š”ํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๋ฒ•์น™์€ ๋ชจ๋ธ์˜ ์ผ๋ฐ˜ํ™” ๋Šฅ๋ ฅ๊ณผ ์ตœ์ ํ™” ๊ณผ์ •์—๋„ ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ฏธ์น˜๋ฏ€๋กœ, SFT ๋ฐ DPO์—์„œ ์Šค์ผ€์ผ๋ง ๋ฒ•์น™์„ ํƒ๊ตฌํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์€ ํšจ์œจ์ ์ด๊ณ  ํšจ๊ณผ์ ์ธ ๋ชจ๋ธ ํ•™์Šต์— ํ•„์ˆ˜์ ์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.

RLVR Challenges
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RLVR(Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards)์€ ์–ธ์–ด ๋ชจ๋ธ ํ•™์Šต์— ์œ ๋งํ•œ ์ ‘๊ทผ ๋ฐฉ์‹์ด์ง€๋งŒ, ํŠนํžˆ ์ž‘์€ ๋ชจ๋ธ์— ์ ์šฉํ•  ๋•Œ ๋ช‡ ๊ฐ€์ง€ ์–ด๋ ค์›€์ด ์žˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์ฒซ์งธ, ๊ฒ€์ฆ ๊ฐ€๋Šฅํ•œ ๋ณด์ƒ ์‹ ํ˜ธ๋Š” ๋ณธ์งˆ์ ์œผ๋กœ sparseํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ๋ชจ๋“  ์ถœ๋ ฅ์— ๋Œ€ํ•ด ๋ช…ํ™•ํ•œ ์˜ณ๊ณ  ๊ทธ๋ฆ„์ด ์žˆ๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์€ ์•„๋‹ˆ๋ฏ€๋กœ ๋ชจ๋ธ์ด ํšจ๊ณผ์ ์œผ๋กœ ํ•™์Šตํ•˜๊ธฐ ์–ด๋ ค์šธ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ๋‘˜์งธ, ์ž‘์€ ๋ชจ๋ธ์€ ํฐ ๋ชจ๋ธ๋ณด๋‹ค ์ตœ์ ํ™”ํ•˜๊ธฐ ๊นŒ๋‹ค๋กœ์šธ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ํ•™์Šต๋ฅ ๊ณผ ๋ฐฐ์น˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ์˜ ๊ด€๊ณ„๋Š” ๋ชจ๋ธ ์„ฑ๋Šฅ์— ํฐ ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ฏธ์นฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค, ์ ์ ˆํ•œ ๊ท ํ˜•์„ ์ฐพ๊ธฐ๊ฐ€ ์–ด๋ ค์šธ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ๋งˆ์ง€๋ง‰์œผ๋กœ, ๊ณ„์‚ฐ ๋ฆฌ์†Œ์Šค์˜ ์ œ์•ฝ์€ ์ฒ ์ €ํ•œ ์‹คํ—˜์„ ์–ด๋ ต๊ฒŒ ๋งŒ๋“ค๊ณ  ์ตœ์ ์˜ hyperparameter ์„ค์ •์„ ์ฐพ๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ๋ฐฉํ•ดํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๋ฌธ์ œ์—๋„ ๋ถˆ๊ตฌํ•˜๊ณ , RLVR์€ ์ถ”๋ก  ๋Šฅ๋ ฅ ํ–ฅ์ƒ์— ํฐ ์ž ์žฌ๋ ฅ์„ ๊ฐ€์ง€๊ณ  ์žˆ๊ธฐ์— ์ถ”๊ฐ€ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๊ฐ€ ํ•„์š”ํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.

More visual insights
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More on figures

๐Ÿ”ผ SmolLM2-135M ๋ชจ๋ธ์˜ ์ง€๋„ ๋ฏธ์„ธ ์กฐ์ • ์ค‘ ํ•™์Šต๋ฅ ๊ณผ ๋ฐฐ์น˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ๊ฐ€ GSM8K ์ ์ˆ˜์— ๋ฏธ์น˜๋Š” ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ฃผ๋Š” ๋“ฑ๊ณ ์„  ๋ถ„์„์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์ƒ‰์ƒ ์ฒ™๋„๋Š” ๊ฐ ์ง€ํ‘œ์˜ ์ ์ˆ˜๋ฅผ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ด๋ฉฐ ๊ฒ€์€์ƒ‰์ผ์ˆ˜๋ก ์„ฑ๋Šฅ์ด ๋” ๋†’๋‹ค๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ์˜๋ฏธํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์ด ํŒจํ„ด์€ ํ•™์Šต๋ฅ ๊ณผ ๋ฐฐ์น˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ์˜ ์ตœ์  ๋น„์œจ์ด ์ž‘์—…์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ ๋‹ค๋ฅด๋‹ค๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ค๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. GSM8K์™€ ๊ฐ™์€ ์ถ”๋ก  ์ž‘์—…์€ ํ•™์Šต๋ฅ  ๋Œ€ ๋ฐฐ์น˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ ๋น„์œจ์ด ๋†’์„์ˆ˜๋ก ์„ฑ๋Šฅ์ด ํ–ฅ์ƒ๋ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.

read the caption(b) Effect of learning rate and batch size on GSM8K score.

๐Ÿ”ผ SmolLM2-135M ๋ชจ๋ธ์˜ ์ง€๋„ ๋ฏธ์„ธ ์กฐ์ • ์ค‘ ํ•™์Šต๋ฅ ๊ณผ ๋ฐฐ์น˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ๊ฐ€ HellaSwag ์ ์ˆ˜์— ๋ฏธ์น˜๋Š” ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋“ฑ๊ณ ์„  ๋ถ„์„์œผ๋กœ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ฃผ๋Š” ๊ทธ๋ฆผ์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์ƒ‰์ƒ ์ฒ™๋„๋Š” ๊ฐ ์ง€ํ‘œ์˜ ์ ์ˆ˜๋ฅผ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ด๋ฉฐ, ๊ฒ€์€์ƒ‰์ผ์ˆ˜๋ก ์„ฑ๋Šฅ์ด ๋†’์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์ด ํŒจํ„ด์€ ํ•™์Šต๋ฅ ๊ณผ ๋ฐฐ์น˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ ๊ฐ„์˜ ์ž‘์—…๋ณ„ ์ตœ์  ๋น„์œจ์„ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ค๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. HellaSwag์—์„œ ํ•™์Šต๋ฅ ๊ณผ ๋ฐฐ์น˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ ๋น„์œจ์ด ๋‚ฎ์„ ๋•Œ ์ตœ์ ์˜ ์„ฑ๋Šฅ์„ ๋‹ฌ์„ฑํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ํ™•์ธํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.

read the caption(c) Effect of learning rate and batch size on HellaSwag score.

๐Ÿ”ผ SmolLM2-135M ๋ชจ๋ธ์˜ ์ง€๋„ ๋ฏธ์„ธ ์กฐ์ • ์ค‘ ํ•™์Šต๋ฅ ๊ณผ ๋ฐฐ์น˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ๊ฐ€ IFEval ์ ์ˆ˜์— ๋ฏธ์น˜๋Š” ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋“ฑ๊ณ ์„  ๋ถ„์„์œผ๋กœ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ฃผ๋Š” ๊ทธ๋ฆผ์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์ƒ‰์ƒ ์ฒ™๋„๋Š” ๊ฐ ์ง€ํ‘œ์˜ ์ ์ˆ˜๋ฅผ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ด๋ฉฐ, ๊ฒ€์€์ƒ‰์ผ์ˆ˜๋ก ์„ฑ๋Šฅ์ด ๋†’๋‹ค๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋ƒ…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์ด ๊ทธ๋ฆผ์€ ํ•™์Šต๋ฅ ๊ณผ ๋ฐฐ์น˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ์˜ ๋น„์œจ์ด ์ž‘์—…์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ ์ตœ์ ์˜ ๊ฐ’์„ ๊ฐ€์ง์„ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ค๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ํŠนํžˆ IFEval์˜ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ, ๋‚ฎ์€ ํ•™์Šต๋ฅ  ๋Œ€ ๋ฐฐ์น˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ ๋น„์œจ์—์„œ ์ตœ์ ์˜ ์„ฑ๋Šฅ์„ ๋‹ฌ์„ฑํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ๋ณผ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Š” ์ถ”๋ก  ์ž‘์—…๊ณผ ํŒจํ„ด ์ธ์‹ ์ž‘์—…์— ๋Œ€ํ•ด ์„œ๋กœ ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ์ตœ์ ํ™” ์ „๋žต์ด ํ•„์š”ํ•จ์„ ์‹œ์‚ฌํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.

read the caption(d) Effect of learning rate and batch size on IFEval score.
More on tables
HyperparameterSmolTuluSmolTuluTulu 3Tulu 3
SFT-1130SFT-1207SFT 8bSFT 70b
Learning Rate (LR)9.0e-53.1e-65.0e-62.0e-6
Batch Size (BS)832128128
LR/BS x 10^611.250.0970.0390.016

๐Ÿ”ผ ์ด ํ‘œ๋Š” ์ง€๋„ ๋ฏธ์„ธ ์กฐ์ •(SFT) ๋‹จ๊ณ„์—์„œ ์‚ฌ์šฉ๋œ ํ•˜์ดํผํŒŒ๋ผ๋ฏธํ„ฐ๋ฅผ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ค๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ๋‹ค์–‘ํ•œ ํฌ๊ธฐ์˜ ๋ชจ๋ธ(SmolTulu, Tulu 3)์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ํ•™์Šต๋ฅ , ๋ฐฐ์น˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ ๋ฐ ํ•™์Šต๋ฅ  ๋Œ€ ๋ฐฐ์น˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ ๋น„์œจ์„ ๋น„๊ตํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. SmolTulu ๋ชจ๋ธ์€ ๋” ํฐ ํ•™์Šต๋ฅ  ๋Œ€ ๋ฐฐ์น˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ ๋น„์œจ์„ ์‚ฌ์šฉํ•˜๋Š” ๋ฐ˜๋ฉด Tulu 3 ๋ชจ๋ธ์€ ๋” ์ž‘์€ ๋น„์œจ์„ ์‚ฌ์šฉํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ค๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๋น„์œจ์€ ๋ชจ๋ธ ํฌ๊ธฐ ๋ฐ ์ž‘์—… ์œ ํ˜•์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ ์ตœ์ ์˜ ํ•™์Šต ์—ญํ•™์ด ์–ด๋–ป๊ฒŒ ๋ณ€ํ•˜๋Š”์ง€ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ค๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.

read the captionTable 2: SFT hyperparameter selection
MetricSmolTulu
SFT-1130
SmolTulu
SFT-1207
SmolLM2
1.7B-Instruct
ARC (Average)51.055.651.7
BBH (3-shot)34.734.032.2
GSM8K (5-shot)49.042.848.2
HellaSwag61.567.566.1
IFEval (Average)61.047.856.7
MMLU-Pro (MCF)17.617.919.3
PIQA72.776.974.4

๐Ÿ”ผ SFT ๋ชจ๋ธ ์„ฑ๋Šฅ ๋น„๊ตํ‘œ: SmolTulu SFT-1130, SmolTulu SFT-1207, SmolLM2 1.7B-Instruct ๋ชจ๋ธ์˜ ARC, BBH, GSM8K, HellaSwag, IFEval, MMLU-Pro, PIQA ๋ฒค์น˜๋งˆํฌ ์ ์ˆ˜ ๋น„๊ต

read the captionTable 3: Performance comparison of SFT models
BenchmarkContamination
cais/mmlu0.69%
openai/openai_humaneval0.00%
openai/gsm8k0.00%
ucinlp/drop0.07%
lighteval/MATH0.02%
google/IFEval0.00%
akariasai/PopQA2.72%
tatsu-lab/alpaca_eval1.24%
lukaemon/bbh0.00%
truthfulqa/truthful_qa0.61%
allenai/wildguardmix0.06%
allenai/wildjailbreak0.00%
TIGER-Lab/MMLU-Pro0.36%
Idavidrein/gpqa0.00%
lighteval/agi_eval_en0.00%
bigcode/bigcodebench0.00%
deepmind/math_dataset0.00%

๐Ÿ”ผ ์ด ํ‘œ๋Š” ์‚ฌ์ „ ํ›ˆ๋ จ๋œ ์–ธ์–ด ๋ชจ๋ธ(llama-3.1-tulu-3-8b-preference-mixture)์„ ๋ฏธ์„ธ ์กฐ์ •ํ•˜๋Š” ๋ฐ ์‚ฌ์šฉ๋œ DPO ๋ฐ์ดํ„ฐ ์„ธํŠธ์—์„œ ๋ฒค์น˜๋งˆํฌ์˜ ์˜ค์—ผ ๋น„์œจ์„ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ค๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ๋Œ€๋ถ€๋ถ„์˜ ๋ฒค์น˜๋งˆํฌ๋Š” 1% ๋ฏธ๋งŒ์˜ ๋‚ฎ์€ ์˜ค์—ผ๋ฅ ์„ ๋ณด์ด๋ฉฐ, GSM8K, IFEval, BBH์™€ ๊ฐ™์€ ํ•ต์‹ฌ ๋ฒค์น˜๋งˆํฌ๋Š” ์˜ค์—ผ์ด ์ „ํ˜€ ์—†์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. PopQA์—์„œ ๊ฐ€์žฅ ๋†’์€ ์˜ค์—ผ๋ฅ ์ธ 2.72%๊ฐ€ ๊ด€์ฐฐ๋˜์—ˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.

read the captionTable 4: Contamination of benchmarks in the DPO dataset used allenai/llama-3.1-tulu-3-8b-preference-mixture
HyperparameterSmolTulu
DPO-1130
SmolTulu
DPO-1207
Tulu 3
DPO 8b
Tulu 3
DPO 70b
Learning Rate (LR)$8.0 \times 10^{-7}$$5 \times 10^{-7}$$5.0 \times 10^{-7}$$2.0 \times 10^{-7}$
Batch Size (BS)1232128128
$\frac{LR}{BS} \times 10^{7}$0.6670.1560.0390.016

๐Ÿ”ผ ์ด ํ‘œ๋Š” SmolTulu, Tulu 3 ๋ชจ๋ธ์˜ DPO ๋‹จ๊ณ„์—์„œ ์‚ฌ์šฉ๋œ ํ•˜์ดํผํŒŒ๋ผ๋ฏธํ„ฐ ์„ค์ •์„ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ค๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ํ•™์Šต๋ฅ , ๋ฐฐ์น˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ, ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  ๊ทธ ๋น„์œจ์ด ๋ชจ๋ธ ํฌ๊ธฐ์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ ์–ด๋–ป๊ฒŒ ๋‹ค๋ฅธ์ง€๋ฅผ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋ƒ…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.

read the captionTable 5: DPO hyperparameter selection
MetricSmolTulu
DPO-1130
SmolTulu
DPO-1207
SmolLM2
1.7B-Instruct
ARC (Average)51.557.151.7
BBH (3-shot)33.834.232.2
GSM8K (5-shot)51.644.748.2
HellaSwag61.164.266.1
IFEval (Average)67.756.656.7
MMLU-Pro (MCF)17.419.119.3
PIQA72.276.474.4

๐Ÿ”ผ ์ด ํ‘œ๋Š” Direct Preference Optimization(DPO) ๋ชจ๋ธ๋“ค์˜ ์„ฑ๋Šฅ ๋น„๊ต๋ฅผ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ค๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. SmolTulu DPO-1130๊ณผ SmolTulu DPO-1207 ๋‘ ๊ฐ€์ง€ DPO ๋ชจ๋ธ์˜ ์„ฑ๋Šฅ์„ SmolLM2 1.7B-Instruct ๋ชจ๋ธ๊ณผ ์—ฌ๋Ÿฌ ๋ฒค์น˜๋งˆํฌ์—์„œ ๋น„๊ตํ•˜๊ณ  ์žˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. SmolTulu DPO-1130์€ IFEval๊ณผ GSM8K์—์„œ ๊ฐ€์žฅ ์ข‹์€ ์„ฑ๋Šฅ์„ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ฃผ๋Š” ๋ฐ˜๋ฉด ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ๋ชจ๋ธ๋“ค์€ ARC์™€ PIQA์—์„œ ๋” ๋‚˜์€ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ค๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.

read the captionTable 6: Performance comparison of DPO models
HyperparameterSmolTuluSmolTuluTulu 3
RM-1130RM-1207DPO 8b
Learning Rate (LR)4.0 ร— 10โปโต7.5 ร— 10โปโท5.0 ร— 10โปโท
Batch Size (BS)48128
LR/BS ร— 10โท1000.9380.039

๐Ÿ”ผ ์ด ํ‘œ๋Š” ๋ณด์ƒ ๋ชจ๋ธ(Reward Model, RM) ํ•™์Šต์— ์‚ฌ์šฉ๋œ ํ•˜์ดํผํŒŒ๋ผ๋ฏธํ„ฐ๋ฅผ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ค๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. SmolTulu RM-1130, SmolTulu RM-1207, ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  Tulu 3 DPO 8b ๋ชจ๋ธ์˜ ํ•™์Šต๋ฅ (Learning Rate), ๋ฐฐ์น˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ(Batch Size), ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  ํ•™์Šต๋ฅ ๊ณผ ๋ฐฐ์น˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ์˜ ๋น„์œจ(LR/BS)์ด ์ œ์‹œ๋˜์–ด ์žˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. SmolTulu ๋ชจ๋ธ๋“ค์€ Tulu 3 ๋ชจ๋ธ์— ๋น„ํ•ด ๋” ๋†’์€ LR/BS ๋น„์œจ์„ ์‚ฌ์šฉํ•œ ๊ฒƒ์ด ํŠน์ง•์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.

read the captionTable 7: Reward model hyperparameter selection
MetricSmolTulu
RM-1130
SmolTulu
RM-1207
Tulu 3
8b RM
RB Chat94.1383.5296.27
RB Chat Hard43.6444.7455.92
RB Safety75.5464.5984.05
RB Reasoning68.0154.7176.50
RB Average72.4358.5981.34
UFB73.1761.6677.34

๐Ÿ”ผ ์ด ํ‘œ๋Š” ๋ณด์ƒ ๋ชจ๋ธ์˜ ์„ฑ๋Šฅ์„ ๋น„๊ตํ•œ ํ‘œ์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. UFB๋Š” allenai/ultrafeedback_binarized_cleaned์˜ test_prefs ๋ถ„ํ• ์ด๊ณ  RB๋Š” RewardBench์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. SmolTulu RM-1130์€ ํ‘œ์ค€ ์ฑ„ํŒ… ํ‰๊ฐ€์—์„œ 94.13%, ์•ˆ์ „ ํ‰๊ฐ€์—์„œ 75.54%๋ฅผ ๋‹ฌ์„ฑํ•˜๋Š” ๋“ฑ ๋‹ค์–‘ํ•œ ์ง€ํ‘œ์—์„œ RewardBench์—์„œ ๊ฐ•๋ ฅํ•œ ์„ฑ๋Šฅ์„ ๋ณด์˜€์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๊ฐ•๋ ฅํ•œ ์ƒ๋Œ€์  ์„ฑ๋Šฅ ํŒจํ„ด์€ ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ์ง€ํ‘œ์—๋„ ์ ์šฉ๋˜๋ฉฐ, SmolTulu RM-1130์€ UltraFeedback ๋ฒค์น˜๋งˆํฌ ํ…Œ์ŠคํŠธ ์„ ํ˜ธ๋„์—์„œ 73.17%์˜ ์ •ํ™•๋„๋ฅผ ๋‹ฌ์„ฑํ•˜์—ฌ ๋งค๊ฐœ๋ณ€์ˆ˜์˜ ์•ฝ 21%๋งŒ ์‚ฌ์šฉํ•จ์—๋„ ๋ถˆ๊ตฌํ•˜๊ณ  Tulu 3์˜ 77.34%์— ๋ถˆ๊ณผ 4.17% ํฌ์ธํŠธ ์ฐจ์ด๋กœ ๋’ค์ฒ˜์กŒ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. (Shallue et al., 2019)์˜ ํ”„๋ ˆ์ž„์›Œํฌ์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅด๋ฉด, ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋Š” ํŠนํžˆ ์ ์ ˆํ•˜๊ฒŒ ์กฐ ๋œ ์ตœ์ ํ™” ์ „๋žต์„ ์‚ฌ์šฉํ•  ๋•Œ ๋ณด์ƒ ๋ชจ๋ธ๋ง์ด ์ด์ „์— ๊ฐ€์ •ํ–ˆ๋˜ ๊ฒƒ๋ณด๋‹ค ๋” ์ž‘์€ ์•„ํ‚คํ…์ฒ˜๋กœ ๋” ์šฐ์•„ํ•˜๊ฒŒ ํ™•์žฅ๋  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์Œ์„ ์‹œ์‚ฌํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. RM-1130๊ณผ RM-1207(RB์—์„œ 72.43% ๋Œ€ 58.59%) ๊ฐ„์˜ ์ƒ๋‹นํ•œ ์„ฑ๋Šฅ ๊ฒฉ์ฐจ๋Š” ์†Œ๊ทœ๋ชจ ๋ชจ๋ธ์—์„œ ํ•™์Šต๋ฅ  ๋Œ€ ๋ฐฐ์น˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ ๋น„์œจ์˜ ์ค‘์š”์„ฑ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ด์ „ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ๊ฐ•ํ™”ํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. RM-1130์—์„œ ์‚ฌ์šฉ๋œ ๋” ๋†’์€ ๋น„์œจ์€ ํŠนํžˆ ์„ ํ˜ธ๋„ ๊ด€๊ณ„๋ฅผ ํ•™์Šตํ•˜๋Š” ์ž‘์—…์—์„œ ๋ณด์ƒ ๋ชจ๋ธ๋ง์— ์ค‘์š”ํ•œ ๊ฒƒ์œผ๋กœ ๋ณด์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์—ฌ๊ธฐ์„œ ๋” ํฐ ์˜ˆ์‹œ๋‹น ์—…๋ฐ์ดํŠธ์™€ ๋” ๋นˆ๋ฒˆํ•œ ๊ทธ๋ผ๋ฐ์ด์…˜ ๊ณ„์‚ฐ์˜ ์ด์ ์„ ์–ป์„ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋Ÿฌ๋‚˜ ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๊ด€๊ณ„์˜ ์ •ํ™•ํ•œ ํŠน์„ฑ์„ ํ™•๋ฆฝํ•˜๋ ค๋ฉด ๋” ๊ด‘๋ฒ”์œ„ํ•œ ์ ˆ์ œ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๊ฐ€ ํ•„์š”ํ•˜๋ฉฐ, ์ด๋Š” ๋” ํฐ ๊ณ„์‚ฐ ๋ฆฌ์†Œ์Šค๋ฅผ ์‚ฌ์šฉํ•œ ํ–ฅํ›„ ์ž‘์—…์œผ๋กœ ๋‚จ๊ฒจ๋‘ก๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.

read the captionTable 8: Performance comparison of reward models, where UFB is the test_prefs split of allenai/ultrafeedback_binarized_cleaned and RB is RewardBench.
MetricSmolTulu
DPO-1130
SmolTulu
DPO-1207
SmolTulu
SFT-1130
SmolTulu
SFT-1207
SmolLM2
1.7B-Instruct
Llama-3.2
1B-Instruct
Qwen2.5
1.5B-Instruct
ARC (Average)51.557.151.055.651.741.646.2
BBH (3-shot)33.834.234.734.032.227.635.3
GSM8K (5-shot)51.644.749.042.848.226.842.8
HellaSwag61.164.261.567.566.156.160.9
IFEval (Average)67.756.661.047.856.753.547.4
MMLU-Pro (MCF)17.419.117.617.919.312.724.2
PIQA72.276.472.776.974.472.373.2

๐Ÿ”ผ ๋‹ค์–‘ํ•œ ๋ชจ๋ธ๋“ค๊ณผ SmolTulu์˜ ์„ฑ๋Šฅ์„ ๋น„๊ตํ•œ ํ‘œ์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. SmolTulu DPO-1130, SmolTulu DPO-1207, SmolTulu SFT-1130, SmolTulu SFT-1207, SmolLM2 1.7B-Instruct, Llama-3.2 1B-Instruct, Qwen2.5 1.5B-Instruct ๋ชจ๋ธ๋“ค์˜ ARC, BBH, GSM8K, HellaSwag, IFEval, MMLU-Pro, PIQA ๋ฒค์น˜๋งˆํฌ์—์„œ์˜ ์„ฑ๋Šฅ์„ ๋น„๊ตํ•˜์—ฌ SmolTulu์˜ ์„ฑ๋Šฅ ์šฐ์œ„๋ฅผ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ค๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.

read the captionTable 9: A comparison against a wider selection of models
LanguagePresence (%)
English83.13
Hindi3.79
Swahili2.02
Russian2.00
Spanish1.15
Arabic0.98
Chinese0.94
Turkish0.87
Urdu0.78
Portuguese0.77
Vietnamese0.64
Japanese0.63
French0.66
Bulgarian0.33
Italian0.32
Dutch0.31
Polish0.25
German0.23
Thai0.10
Greek0.09

๐Ÿ”ผ SFT ๋ฐ์ดํ„ฐ์…‹์— ์‚ฌ์šฉ๋œ allenai/tulu-3-sft-mixture์˜ ์–ธ์–ด ๋ถ„ํฌ๋ฅผ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ธ ํ‘œ์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ๋ฐ์ดํ„ฐ์…‹์—์„œ ์˜์–ด๊ฐ€ 83.13%๋กœ ๊ฐ€์žฅ ๋งŽ์ด ์‚ฌ์šฉ๋˜์—ˆ๊ณ , ๊ทธ ๋’ค๋ฅผ ํžŒ๋””์–ด(3.79%), ์Šค์™€ํž๋ฆฌ์–ด(2.02%), ๋Ÿฌ์‹œ์•„์–ด(2.00%) ๋“ฑ์ด ์ฐจ์ง€ํ•˜๊ณ  ์žˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.

read the captionTable 10: Language distribution in SFT dataset.
LanguagePresence (%)
English86.24
Hindi2.23
Russian2.03
French1.42
Spanish1.40
Chinese1.37
Urdu0.68
Swahili0.65
German0.58
Japanese0.57
Portuguese0.54
Arabic0.51
Turkish0.42
Vietnamese0.33
Italian0.32
Polish0.22
Dutch0.18
Bulgarian0.18
Thai0.10
Greek0.04

๐Ÿ”ผ ์ด ํ‘œ๋Š” DPO(Direct Preference Optimization) ๋ฐ RM(Reward Modeling) ๋ฐ์ดํ„ฐ์…‹์—์„œ ๊ฐ ์–ธ์–ด๊ฐ€ ์ฐจ์ง€ํ•˜๋Š” ๋น„์œจ์„ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ค๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ํ‘œ์—์„œ ๋ณผ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋“ฏ์ด ์˜์–ด๊ฐ€ ๊ฐ€์žฅ ํฐ ๋น„์ค‘์„ ์ฐจ์ง€ํ•˜๊ณ  ์žˆ์œผ๋ฉฐ, ๊ทธ ์™ธ ๋‹ค์–‘ํ•œ ์–ธ์–ด๋“ค์ด ํฌํ•จ๋˜์–ด ์žˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.

read the captionTable 11: Language distribution in DPO / RM dataset.
LanguagePresence (%)
English94.80
French1.29
Spanish1.04
Chinese0.66
German0.55
Russian0.48
Japanese0.40
Hindi0.23
Polish0.10
Portuguese0.10
Dutch0.08
Urdu0.07
Bulgarian0.07
Italian0.05
Turkish0.03
Arabic0.03
Vietnamese0.02
Swahili0.00

๐Ÿ”ผ RLVR ๋ฐ์ดํ„ฐ์…‹์˜ ์–ธ์–ด ๋ถ„ํฌ๋ฅผ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ฃผ๋Š” ํ‘œ์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์ฃผ๋กœ ์˜์–ด๋กœ ๊ตฌ์„ฑ๋˜์–ด ์žˆ์œผ๋ฉฐ, ํ”„๋ž‘์Šค์–ด, ์ŠคํŽ˜์ธ์–ด, ์ค‘๊ตญ์–ด, ๋…์ผ์–ด, ๋Ÿฌ์‹œ์•„์–ด, ์ผ๋ณธ์–ด ๋“ฑ ๋‹ค์–‘ํ•œ ์–ธ์–ด๊ฐ€ ์†Œ๋Ÿ‰ ํฌํ•จ๋˜์–ด ์žˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.

read the captionTable 12: Language distribution in RLVR dataset.
BenchmarkContamination
cais/mmlu0.65%
openai/openai_humaneval0.00%
openai/gsm8k0.00%
ucinlp/drop0.00%
lighteval/MATH0.24%
google/IFEval0.00%
akariasai/PopQA0.45%
tatsu-lab/alpaca_eval0.12%
lukaemon/bbh0.00%
truthfulqa/truthful_qa0.12%
allenai/wildguardmix0.00%
allenai/wildjailbreak0.00%
TIGER-Lab/MMLU-Pro0.66%
Idavidrein/gpqa0.00%
lighteval/agi_eval_en0.00%
bigcode/bigcodebench0.00%
deepmind/math_dataset0.00%

๐Ÿ”ผ RLVR ๋ฐ์ดํ„ฐ์…‹(allenai/RLVR-GSM-MATH-IF-Mixed-Constraints)์˜ ๋ฒค์น˜๋งˆํฌ๋ณ„ ์˜ค์—ผ๋„๋ฅผ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ธ ํ‘œ์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ๋Œ€๋ถ€๋ถ„์˜ ๋ฒค์น˜๋งˆํฌ์—์„œ ์˜ค์—ผ๋„๋Š” 1% ๋ฏธ๋งŒ์œผ๋กœ ๋‚ฎ๊ฒŒ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ฌ์œผ๋ฉฐ, GSM8K, IFEval, BBH์™€ ๊ฐ™์€ ์ค‘์š” ๋ฒค์น˜๋งˆํฌ๋Š” ์˜ค์—ผ๋„ 0%๋ฅผ ๊ธฐ๋กํ–ˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.

read the captionTable 13: Contamination of benchmarks in the RLVR dataset allenai/RLVR-GSM-MATH-IF-Mixed-Constraints

Full paper
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